Breast Cancer Gene Mutations Biology Essay

Breast Cancer Gene Mutations Biology Essay Breast Cancer affects nearly 1 in 4 women in the United States each year. Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body. Breast cancer is a form of cancer that originates in the tissues of the breast. Using the latest technology researchers have determined that there is a specific line of genes linked to breast cancer, breast cancer (BRCA) 1 and BRCA 2 genes. The ability to test a patient for these breast cancer genes will help lead to better diagnosis and treatment for those with the gene. Often breast cancer will start from a single abnormal cell that grows into a benign tumor (Mader123). The tumor originates in the milk duct, where an extra lining of cells is formed that fills the ducts, this is known as ductal carcinoma. Another form, lobular carcinoma is when the cancer begins in the lobules, which are the glands that make the milk. Breast cancer is most common in females; however, males can still have breast cancer. In women it is recommended to be screened for breast cancer via self examination or mammograms, depending on age. Women who are over the age of forty are recommended to have a mammogram done every one to two years. Age is another risk because as a person gets older their risk increases. Race and ethnicity is another risk factor; white women are more at risk for breast cancer than African American women. Only about 5% to 10% of breast cancer cases are thought to be hereditary, resulting directly from gene defects inherited from a parent (cancer.org). Breast cancer can be classified by either BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 gene, which defines the mutation of the breast cancer gene. This form of breast cancer is considered genetic, which is when one dominate gene is passed onto subsequent generations and can result in the BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 gene. There are genes that can help with DNA repair, but in this case it is not a damaged gene it is mutated and cannot be repaired. Females who are heterozygous for the BRCA 1 mutation have a higher risk of getting breast cancer. The gene loci for BRCA 1 gene can be found on the 27th chromosome, it is known as a tumor suppressor gene that provides the blueprint for protein that breaks cellular growth**. Families who have history of breast and ovarian cancer have a strong occurrence of the BRCA1 gene and as a result there is a high risk for breast and ovarian cancer. Individuals that do have a family history of breast and ovarian cancers tend to acquire these cancers at a young age or acquire the more aggressive forms. The gene loci for the BRCA 2 gene is found on the 13th chromosome; although breast cancer is rare in men, this gene tends to affect males at a higher rate. The gene for BRCA 2 is not expressed as often as BRCA 1, and families who carry this gene tend to be at a lower risk for developing cancer. Men who carry the BRCA 2 mutations are at a higher risk of developing breast cancer by age 70. Breast cancer is more commonly found in families with high male and female breast cancer occurrences. Breast cancer can also be related to ethnic background and specifically families who are of Jewish decent tend to be more likely to develop breast cancer due to a high mutation rate. Prevalence of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations in different ethnic groups in the  U.S. BRCA1 Asian American 0.5% African American African American 1.3-1.4% Caucasian Caucasian (non-Ashkenazi Jewish) 2.2-2.9% Hispanic 3.5% Ashkenazi Jewish 8.3-10.2% Adapted from National Cancer Institute materials  [5]. Figure : Prevalence of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations in different ethnic groups in the U.S. (komen.org) This table shows the percentages of the different ethnic groups and their chance of developing the BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene. Men or women who are considered to be at high risk for breast cancer have the option to be tested. A person is considered to be at high risk if there are two or more family members that have had breast or ovarian cancer. The test for the breast cancer gene is a blood test that checks the DNA to see if there is a mutation in the BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 gene. A positive result of this test means that the patient has inherited the mutated gene. It is not definitive that the patient will get breast cancer as it requires unidentified environmental factors in order for the cancer to develop. However, a positive result means that the patient can pass the mutated gene to their children. If a person receives a negative result of having the breast cancer gene, it does not necessarily mean that they are not at risk for breast cancer, it means that they do not have the gene. In fact, 90 to 95 percent of breast cancer is not a result of BRCA 1 or BRCA 2, and 5 to 10 percent of women have the heredity fa ctor of breast cancer (Schnipper221). Also, The child of a parent who has a positive gene has a 50 percent risk of inheriting the mutation (Schnipper223). Testing for a genetic inheritance of the gene can be very helpful for families to know if they are carrying the mutated gene, and it can also be upsetting to the families who are affected. If a test comes back positive for the gene it will put other members of the family at risk for carrying the gene. Breast cancer heredity is very rare and it does not occur in every family. Age and ethnic background play a huge role in determining if you have a higher risk of carrying the gene. If a Jewish woman younger than 40 has breast cancer, there is about a 33% chance that they will be a carrier of the gene. While those who are not Jewish and have breast cancer before 30 have a 12% chance of having a mutation (Love108). This illustrates that the genetic test is not a good determinant of risk for cancer. Positive results from the breast cancer test have a few options to lower their risk of getting breast cancer. Patients can choose to be monitored closer by their doctors for breast cancer signs by having frequent breast exams, mammograms, MRIs, ultrasounds, blood tests, and also by self examination. A more aggressive step could be having prophylactic surgery, such as a double mastectomy. The surgery is a quite radical surgery and is not a common choice. Research has indicated that those who carry either the BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation can lower their risk of getting the cancer by keeping up with a physical, healthy lifestyle and by breastfeeding. Although that may not work on everyone, it has shown to help with some patients who carry the mutation. There is not much that can be done to prevent the chances of getting breast cancer besides radical surgery. There are other factors such as carrying the mutated breast cancer gene that can elevate the risk of getting breast cancer, a second primary cancer, which is a second breast tumor that is not related to the first tumor, can also show an increased risk of occurring with patients who carry the mutation. For BRCA1/2 carriers, the chance of a contralateral breast cancer 10 years after diagnosis of the first cancer is about 18 to 30 percent compared to about 10 percent for breast cancer survivors without a BRCA1/2 mutation (komen.org). Surgery, radiation therapy, tamoxifen, and chemotherapy are the most commonly used treatments for breast cancer. The treatment that is used depends on the type and severity of the cancer. A patient will go over the options that work best for them with their doctor to help get the best treatment. Two other surgeries that are performed depending on the patients cancer are Lumpectomy, and Mastectomy. Lumpectomy is a surgery that removes only the cancerous lump from the breast. Mastectomy is removal of the entire breasts to remove the cancer and the tissue that surrounds it. Men and women who have breast cancer as a result of a genetic mutation will go through the same treatments. A patient who has a genetic mutation of breast cancer does not have their own treatment plan. Although they can take precautions to help prevent their chance of developing breast cancer, there is no different treatment if they do have breast cancer. Only five to ten percent of breast cancer patients in the United States are linked to a high risk genetic mutation (komen.org). Men and women who inherited the BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 gene, do not make up the population of those who suffer from breast cancer. Having a genetic mutation is not the only way for a patient to receive breast cancer, there are many other aspects. There are chances that getting breast cancer may be genetically linked, but there is still research being conducted to investigate the occurrence of breast cancer.

Clinical Governance

Principles of clinical governance:Working in a critical care department with a 150-bed capacity was challenging for me as aclinical nursing manager. One of the struggles was controlling the infection rate in thedepartment it is need to be minting and working to reduce the high rate so is not easy toachieve. For example, the report for one of the infraction control indicators showed that therate of central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) was high. Clinical governance plays an important role in improving healthcare systems by enhancing and maintaining the continuity of the healthcare provided, creating an evidence-based framework for managing the healthcare provider, refining professional performance by providing scientific resources, and minimising the risk to the patient. It is also important to guarantee patient satisfaction (Kapur, 2009).Working with the clinical governance department lead to the idea for reducing the high rate of CLABSI by using bundles to monitor staff members during insertion of the central line and to make sure that is the blood instruction with the clean producer. The care bundles are providing the evidence based interventions by collecting the interventions in one protocol, that will help to get an excellent outcome (Fulbrook & Mooney, 2003). The result of implementing bundles was excellent, and the rate of CLABSI went down by 50% in the first month, and within three months the rate had dropped by more than 80%. Staff role in ensuring quality and safety:the quality of the nurses' work and safety of patients is essential toproviding excellent care to patients. nurses are the major part of health care providers andit is essential that they take care of preventing medical errors and maintain patient safety. The clinical manager has the role to ensure that bundles were properly implemented and supervised by using one staff member in each shift to check the bundles to verify that all of the health care providers were committed to the bundles instructions. This helped to ensure consistency in the quality of care provided to the patients.(Barbara et al., 2014) Empowering consumers:empowering nurses to take a more active role in their healthcare experience canlead to providing better healthcare. I believe that requiring continuing education allows thenurses to improve their expertise. Furthermore, having nurses share their knowledge isimportant because it helps them to become role models. Nurses must belief in their value andmake sure they apply what they belief in realty to provide better care for patients. Also,creating a positive communication environment is crucial to improving the relationshipbetween patients and nurses, which is reflected in the healthcare outcome. Improving thepersonal – central can have a significant impact on delivering excellent healthcare.The prerequisites for a professional nurse focus on the nurse's attributes and include beingprofessionally competent, having developed interpersonal skills, being committed to the job,being able to demonstrate clarity of beliefs and values, and knowing oneself (Tanya V.McCance, 2006). The empowerment is most successful when it is internal, ratherthan external. Therefore, nursing students must be taught how to empower themselves a supported. Empowering nurses can lead to promote health care and that will reflect in patient health.

Digital Dating: Desperation or Necessity?

In this essay I will examine the articles, Digital Dating: Desperation or Necessity? Written by Christine Hassler, a former Hollywood Agent, and the author of the book called Twenty-Something, Twenty-Everything. This article talks about social networks, their impact on both of our social and love life. It tries to convince us to try to experience all the benefits that online dating provides us. Technology has implemented itself in almost every aspect of our daily lives, and the new big thing we have currently is the rave of online dating. Computers are day in day out coming out with new dating websites, and people are buying into the whole idea of it being a last resort and only option left. Of course it is so much easier to sit on a computer and explain detailed information about yourself and come up with matches or results, but where was this decades ago when there was no such thing as the internet. Before computers this means that men and women actually had to go out in public and communicate back and forth to find their life partners. Nonetheless, I don’t consider the online dating strategy to be an effective or good idea in the first place because there are too many problems and negative effects that can come from it more so than positive ones. I think people should be very careful. Meeting strangers face to face in social situations is good so long as you size them up, look at their body language and how they interact with others. See their friends as this will tell you a lot about them. Before considering them a romantic possibility it is better to get to know them first as friends and find out what they are really like.

Gaming Observations Essay - 1030 Words

At 1:15pm Saturday afternoon, I am currently hanging out at the student gaming center with the pool tables and a line of arcades in front of me. At least nine to twelve players are gathered around 2 gaming arcade machines in front of me. The two main popular ones that are of interest would be the Street Fighter 3rd Strike and the Marvel vs Capcom 2 machines. The gamers are heavily immerse in watching the players and cheering them on. I am observing four players playing on two separate machines. The two players who are on MVC2 are wearing both hooded jackets and baggy jeans with tennis shoes. It seems they were here for quite a while. Backpacks are off to the side of the machines or lying around randomly near them on the ground and some†¦show more content†¦I can see the vines pulsing on the sides of their forehead and one of the players just picked up a Gatorade bottle and drank the yellow liquid, lemon flavor I presume. His opponent next to him just wiped the sweat off his forehead with his right arm and yelled that that was a cheap and dirty move. The players that have more spectators I observe a higher level of energy being presented and a potential hostility. The gamers who are playing on the 3rd strike machine were a lot more calm and benevolent. I will hear the players commend each other about how that was a great move and basically playing nice. Compared to the players on the MVC2 machine where the players would suggest that it was a lucky shot in a mean way. The players that are watching contribute to the heat by instigating and yelling out fighting words I can see that the players are irritated and playing much more aggressive, the tapping of the buttons and movements of the joystick is much more prevalent and erratic. 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