Customer Loyalty and Customer Satisfaction Essay

Customer Loyalty can be difficult to define given the different views that are presented within the literature. Zithaml, Berry and Parasuraman (1996) determine that loyalty includes a customer’s intention to stay with an organisation and that loyalty includes four elements: repurchase intentions, recommending the service provider to other customers, less complaints and tolerance of price increases. Oliver, (1999) provides a different definition and describes loyalty as a customer’s overall attachment to a product, service, brand or organisation. A better appreciation of the factors that influence the loyalty of customers, particularly their attitudes and changing needs can help companies to develop strategies to prevent customer defection (Coyles & Gokey, 2002). Customer loyalty is important as it can have a powerful impact on a firm’s performance and it is considered to be a source of competitive advantage (Lam, et al., 2004). There is a strong level of agreement that customer loyalty and satisfaction are linked; however, there is an absence of consensus as to what constitutes customer satisfaction (Caruana, 2002); in addition, despite the fact that many loyal customers are satisfied, this does not always translate into customer loyalty (Kuo & Ye, 1999, Jones & Sasser, 1995) and studies have shown that satisfied customers may express a desire to switch to a competitor but it may prove to be difficult due to a lack of suitable alternatives (Pantouvalkis & Lymperopoulos, 2008, citing Mittal & Lassar, 1998). In contrast however, Reicheld & Sasser, (1990), indicate that high customer satisfaction should provide increased loyalty, which makes it less likely that a customer will decide to switch to a competitor. In addition to customer satisfaction, it has been suggested by numerous Researchers that there are other key antecedents to customer loyalty including perceived value, service quality, corporate image, reputation, trust and switching costs (Ishaqa, 2012, Lam et al, 2004, Bitner, 1995); however, although Researchers have posited that there is a connection, it can be argued that the connections is not fully understood, due to the number of potential antecedents (Wang & Wu, 2012); hence the relevance of this research. Perceived value- Perceived value can be defined in simple terms as the benefits received and the sacrifices made by the customer, although some studies have also proposed that perceived value is multi dimensional (McDougall & Levesque, 2000). It is also important to consider how perceived value can be increased and this may be achieved by delivering a better service, providing customisation of services (Coelho & Henseler, 2012) or reducing the customer’s cost perceptions (Ravald & Gronroos 1996). A customer’s perception of value could motivate them to continue to utilise the services of a service provider (Wang, 2010) and customers may also stay loyal to a company if they feel they are receiving greater value than they would from a competitor (Lam, et al, 2004, citing Bitner & Hubbert, 1994, Bolton & Drew, 1991; Sirdeshmukh et al, 2002). Another consideration of why a customer may stay loyal, rather than move to a competitor is the anticipated switching costs, including the cost involved in changing to an alternative, loss of loyalty benefits and developed routines and procedures (Lam, et al., 2004). In situations where switching costs are high, customers may stay with a service provider regardless of the perceived value (Wang, 2010) Service quality- Some studies have examined service quality as an antecedent of customer satisfaction (Rust & Oliver 1994; Spreng & MacKoy 1996), which as indicated earlier, is posited by some studies to link to perceived value. Parasuraman et al, 1988, developed the SERVQUAL model which can be adapted to suit the needs of an organisation and defines service quality as comprising of five dimensions including reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy and tangibles. As part of the model the customer will compare their expectations with the perceived performance of services, or according to Santos, (2003), where the customer will make an overall judgement of the service offered. Whilst the SERVQUAL model is said to provide a good indicator of overall service quality (Buttle, 1996), it has been questioned whether or not the model can be applied to a range of industries and if the five dimensions are sufficient (Hu, et al, 2009, citing Buttle, 1996, Carman, 1990, Cronin & Taylor, 1990). Some Researchers have also argued that  the SERVQUAL model has shortcomings, as the model only measures the quality of interaction and tangibles such as dà ©cor, etc., but not the actual quality of the service outcome (Sureschander, et, al, 2001). Brady & Cronin, (2001) proposed a model which includes the quality of interaction, physical environment and the outcome. Given the fact that for this study the outcome relates to the quality of homes, or the end product, it will be important to determine how this influences service quality perceptions, in addition to considering the SERVQUAL model. Also, according to Barber & Goodman, (2011), since the SERVQUAL model was developed, the debate on how to define and measure customer expectations, perceptions and performance and to understand how to address the gap has not been addressed. It is important to understand where gaps exist with the services provided and customer expectations, as meeting customer expectations is a significant driver of customer satisfaction, which can increase loyalty intentions (McDougall & Levesque, 2000). The reality is that different customers have different service needs and expectations (McKnight, 2009) and it is important that this research also provides an insight into how customer expectations can be met. Corporate image- Several authors propose that service quality is determined by an evaluation of the corporate image of the organisation (Martà ­nez Garcà ­a & Martà ­nez Caro, 2008) and the relationship between satisfaction and corporate image have been reported in a number of studies (Razavi et al, 2012, citing Lai et al, 2009, Leblanc, 2001; Kandamplully and Hu,2007) Gronroos, (1984), indicated that image, including corporate image is built mainly via the customer’s experience and the manner in which the service is delivered. Bitner, (1992), proposed that the physical environment is instrumental, yet in later years these views have been extended to include a wider definition, including the business name, architecture, products and services and general impression of quality (Nguyen & Leblanc, 2001).

English Language Article Comparison Essay

In this piece of work I will be comparing two articles from newspapers. Both the articles are about the same story and were printed on the same day (Tuesday October 13th 1998), however they are from two different newspapers. One of them is from The Sun and the other from The Telegraph, the main difference between these two papers is that The Sun is a tabloid and The Telegraph is a broadsheet. Throughout this piece of work I will try to examine the difference in their attitudes towards writing news due to this variation in category of newspaper. The article concerns dogs that were at a police dog training unit, the instructor allegedly forced a handler to kick and hang the dogs, one of the dogs involved died. The first and most distinctive thing you realise about these two stories is the difference in headlines. Firstly in The Telegraph the height of the letters involved is only approximately 1cm where as in The Sun it is 2. 6cm. This clearly shows that The Sun wants to make a larger impact and draw your attention to that particular story. Other points about the headlines that back this up are the style of writing. In The Telegraph the headline has been written in serif, this means that the editor has decided to use a font which includes small decorative lines at the ends of letters, however The Sun’s headline is in sans serif and so doesn’t have these lines. This makes the letters much more sharp, and ‘right-angled’ this gives a hard feel to the words and helps attract readers. Another way the editor has used the headline to attract the reader in The Sun is by using block capitals, this instantly makes the letters bigger, stand out and coupled with the words being in bold black and sans serif gives a real shock effect. A similarity between these two headlines though is that they both use quotes, this makes it sound and feel more real to a reader because it says exactly what actual people said and after having read the subheadline, probably what they said in court. However, I personally feel that the main difference is the actual words that have been used. The Sun’s headline is much more emotive, it uses words such as ‘cruel’, ‘kick’ and death. These words will instantly capture people and conjure up images that will stir their imagination and make them want to read on. Not only this but the headline also reads ‘kick his own dog to death’, this makes it seem even worse because it wasn’t a dog belonging to the police but his own family pet. It makes the whole thing seem even more cruel and will once again make people more interested in the story, especially for people who have pet dogs. However, The Telegraph is much more informative and factual, it makes a statement about what happened without going into detail about the emotions of it. It says; ‘Police ‘told to kick and punch dogs†, although it does uses words such as ‘kick’ and ‘punch’ it uses them in a way to inform what the police had been told to do and doesn’t go into detail about what the trainer was like. I also feel an interesting thing to also look at is the use of ‘made’ and ‘told’ in these two headlines. When The Sun says ‘†¦made cop kick his own god to death’ it uses ‘made’ to incriminate the trainers, it makes it sound like the policemen didn’t have a choice and that the whole incident was the trainers fault. Whereas The Telegraph uses ‘told’, this is much more informative and is simply saying what happened, there is no emotional influence in the way The Telegraph have written this headline. The subheadlines are also quite interesting, firstly their placing, The Telegraph has decided to place the subheadline before the main headline and in The Sun it has been placed after the headline. This may have been done for a number of reasons. In The Telegraph the subheadline reads; ‘German Shepard died after punishment, court told’ this subheadline has probably been used to give the reader a bit more information about the story before they read on like the type of dog involved and the fact that the dog died. In The Sun they have decided to put the information that the dog died in their headline and the fact it was a German Shepard isn’t mentioned in The Sun at all. On to The Sun’s subheadline and it simply reads ‘Jury told of punishment’ this has been put after the headline to inform the reader of where the quote of the headline came from. As well as this in The Sun not only does it have a subheadline after the headline, it also has other subheadlines throughout the story to introduce new parts of the article and to split it into three parts; the extra subheadlines are ‘Warned’ and ‘Shaking’. These words are actually used in the section of the article they introduce so that the reader will want to continue. You notice these words and they stand out because they are very expressive and they give you information about what is going to happen in the article even if you don’t read on. I also feel that The Sun has used these particular words to good use, if you didn’t have time to read the whole article and only read the headline and these subheadlines you would leave with a very strong feeling of hatred towards the trainers. Not only with words like ‘made’ which I have already explained, but when it is followed by a subheadline of ‘warned’ it makes you feel as though the police were threatened by the trainers and were warned by them to do nothing wrong. I personally feel that The Telegraph has a more hard-hitting headline for a particular reason. The Sun has made it’s main headline strike out of the page and really make you read on, this means they have put a simple subheadline so as not to overshadow the headline. Whereas The Telegraph has done it the other way around, their headline is not so hard-hitting so the editor has decided to include an emotive subheadline to aid the reader in being interested in the story and to red on. After having seen the headlines and been attracted to the story you begin to read the main text. Straight away in the hook paragraph you can see differences in the papers’ attitudes. Firstly, and most obviously the fact that in The Sun the first paragraph has been written in bold, and simply written normally in The Telegraph. Once again it seems that The Sun has been much more emotive in its approach. Words such as ‘forced’ and ‘kicked it’ are used, not only this but the word ‘DIED’ is written in block capitals, this is to emphasise the word and everything it means and the horror of what happened to the dogs. Words used in The Telegraph are very interesting. The first line explains that the dogs were ‘chastised’, it is interesting they should use this word because although it is hard hitting it probably doesn’t have the same effect on you as ‘kicking’ (which is in The Sun). However The Telegraph does say that dogs were ‘hung helplessly from a wall by their leads’ this is then followed by ‘a court was told yesterday’ it is as though The Telegraph wants to remain on the fence by simply stating what was said but at the same time drumming up emotion in the reader and making them read on, all in all The Sun is more opinionated and The Telegraph is trying as best it can to stay factual. A similarity between the two stories is the use of quotation. Both articles have many quotes from the police officers and trainers in question and almost all of the quotes were said in court. This could well be because on the day these two articles were published the case was still in court and they had little else to go on than this. Also the writer of the article in The Sun has done something slightly unusual in that he has decided to put some paragraphs into italics. This is almost certainly to draw the readers attention to that part of the story and make them read and think about it a different way. There are three paragraphs throughout the article that are in italics and out of these two of them focus on the cruelty to the animals, they go into detail about the way in which this happened and how the dogs reacted to it. The third paragraph describes how two of the handlers left in protest to what was going on before the dog died. Both these points are quite significant to the overall story and you can see why the writer may well have wanted the reader to be more aware of these facts that perhaps other points. Another point that I have found very interesting is sentence type used in both articles. It is normal for newspapers to use a lot of declarative sentences, these help the reporter to get across to the reader all the important information quickly and easily. An example from The Sun would be; ‘PC James English told the court his dog Tazz had been hanged for growling’ and The Telegraph; ‘Trainers at the police dog unit, based at Sandon, Chelmsford, Essex’. However, differences occur between the newspapers when you look at the use of complex sentences, these are more rarely used in papers as they are longer and are not so dramatic. However, as you would except it is The Telegraph that has used a couple but The Sun has used a lot fewer. As I have already described, The Telegraph is a more up-market paper and is aimed towards a sector of society who appreciate this sort of writing whereas The Sun is not. In fact a complex sentence has been used in The Telegraph to say the same as my last quotation of a declarative sentence from The Sun; †PC James English said his dog, Tazz was twice subjected to the hanging method after he had growled during training’.

Acounting information System(AIS) research for Certified Management Paper

Acounting information System(AIS) for Certified Management Accountant(CMA) - Research Paper Example First, the Texas State Board of Public Accountancy (TBPA) requires that an individual must complete at least 150 semester hours of college credit. The total number of credits that an applicant studied in college must be verified when the said individual produces official transcript as well as a well filled application of accreditation. The application of intent will only be approved upon verification that the official transcripts show attendance of 150 semester hours. These hours maybe achieved by completion of master’s degree or other higher degree course conferred by a university that is recognized by TBPA, completion of an upper level accounting courses that is needed to take CPA exam or even completion of additional semester hours(extra units studied in college) of upper level courses that enhance accounting skills and proficiency. In this regard, TSBPA requires that applicants must complete at least 30 hours of accounting courses out of the entire 150 semester hours. These 30 hours must be of upper accounting level courses such as cost accounting, financial accounting, financial statement analysis, intermediate accounting, accounting control and advanced accounting. Alternatively, applicant may complete the 30 hours by completing 12 hours of accounting information systems and 12 hours of taxation courses (TSBPA, 2014). Moreover, the applicants must also complete 24 semester hours of upper level business courses such as business law, financial management, finance, statistics, marketing, information technology, business communication and economics. Additionally, an applicant must also complete at least 3 semester hours on ethics (in which the courses emphasize on integrity, independence and objectivity of an individual) and 2 semester credit hours in tax analysis and research or upper level accounting. Secondly, an applicant applies for

Anthropogenic and Natural Causes of Global Warming Essay

Anthropogenic and Natural Causes of Global Warming - Essay Example This research will begin with the definition of global warming is defined as the result of the accumulation of CO2 and other emissions that trap heat in the atmosphere. Moreover, it is considered as â€Å"the worst and most complicated issue† that world leaders have to deal with nowadays. Basically, global warming affects all people on earth, especially those in areas with extreme air pollution. Global warming also further affects the human race through increase in the occurrence of infectious diseases because those microorganisms that thrive only in high temperatures are supported by the increasing heat. According to Trimarchi, this and the other calamities that global warming brings with it will further lead to various other negative effects like famine, war and starvation. Global warming will also affect the environment itself through the occurrence of various storms and hurricanes, extreme drought in some parts of the world while abnormally increased precipitation in other s, heat waves, melting of the polar ice caps, rise in sea levels and the eventual destruction of the tundra and freshwater ecosystems. Such effects will not only destroy ecosystems but will also eventually cause a series of events that ultimately leads to chaos in and destruction of the human society. Based on a report by the U.S. National Research Council in 2006, â€Å"The Earth is the hottest it has been in at least 400 years†. Furthermore, according to the same report, the latest global temperature increase of 0.3 °C to 0.6 °C is in fact the â€Å"largest† increase in surface temperature in 1,000 years.... Furthermore, according to the same report, the latest global temperature increase of 0.3 °C to 0.6 °C is in fact the â€Å"largest† increase in surface temperature in 1,000 years (â€Å"Global Warming,† Stanford 2008). The main culprit behind this, according to most scientists and publications, is greenhouse gases. The greenhouse gases that cause global warming include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, but among these, carbon dioxide has the most volume in the atmosphere at 55%, and is therefore regarded as the main cause of anthropogenic or man-made global warming (Ganesh 2011). There is, however, the question of what is the exact cause of global warming and how much of it is brought about by nature and how much is caused by man. Does present research and scientific literature shed light on these issues or do we need further research on them? In order to remedy the situation and prevent its dire effects, there is therefore undoubtedly a g reat need to know the exact causes of global warming as well as how many of them is contributed by man and how much by nature. There is also a need to know the issues surrounding these causes. Literature Reviews The Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Factor One of the causes of global warming is the release of carbon dioxide, or CO2, especially from the industrial processes involved in the burning of fossil fuels (â€Å"Global Warming,† Geowise.com, 2006). Among these fossil fuels, coal, which is increasingly being used in the United States and China, contributes the greatest percentage of CO2 to the atmosphere because of potentially large emissions compared to oil or natural gas (Hansen et al. 2000). CO2 has a long shelf-life that makes it stay in the air for the

The Impact Of Globalization On The Economy Research Paper

The Impact Of Globalization On The Economy - Research Paper Example Globalization has helped the realization of the world economy characterized with various features although some factors are not exclusive; they are not present in every country on the globe. To help in gaining more understanding of globalization and the world economy, it is paramount to consider the case of Japan and the US economies. There is a considerably stable status of the world economy, with some economies such as Japan and US indicating an upward progression over the recent years’ time. More specifically America has registered a healthy economic growth rated at 3.5% in 2005 and 5% in 2006’s first quarter of the year. However, the healthy economic growth was hard to be sustained following the consistent increase in oil prices globally as well as the extensive Katrina’s hurricane devastation. However, the US government adopted immediate fiscal and monetary policies which had effective responses. The adopted measures helped in regaining the economic stabilit y of the US. The economy of Japan receives a substantial economic boost registering phenomenal progression rates following the country's continued trading with China. The continent of Europe has also indicated a marginal growth in the recent past. Several European Union countries have recorded unexpected growth rates economically. The establishment of the key free trade consensus including the "North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)" as well as South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) in an effort of boosting globally exercised trade

Compare and contrast the marketing strategies of two major brands, Essay

Compare and contrast the marketing strategies of two major brands, Apple and Samsung - Essay Example ke Apple to continuously come up with products such as iPhone, iPad, Macbook etc, that are popular among consumer segments (Ferral and Hartline 2012, 1). The uncertainty of the external environment provides greater motivation for a company, particularly ones operating in the high-tech electronic industry, to continuously innovate and develop high quality products. Development of marketing strategy enables evaluation of a company’s strengths and in turn allows an organization to capitalize on its strengths thereby providing a competitive advantage. Apple and Samsung, both virtually operating the same industry, employ their marketing strategy to survive the competition in the companies’ macro-environment. Availability of resources is an important aspect of marketing strategy for organizations operating in the electronics industry (Viardot 2004, 196). The fast-paced environment in the digital world necessitates the presence of ample amounts of resources in order to keep the technology updated. For Apple, continuous innovation in technology and the need to develop popular consumer products requires large amounts of both, human resource as well as capital for research and development (R&D). Such availability is vital to a brand’s image, particularly ones that deal in high-tech goods and services. Same is the case with Samsung where effective marketing strategy has allowed it to move its reputation to a premium electronics brand that has grown its market share tremendously. All aspects of marketing strategy including pricing, distribution, etc, play a central role in the delivery of consumer satisfaction with the product (Chang 2011). Marketing strategy altogether acts to provide consumers with a superior user experience. Today’s electronics industry is increasingly dynamic and the development of effective strategies and marketing plans are important for the success of organizations that operate in the growingly competitive environment. Speaking about Apple

Nursing History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nursing History - Essay Example The question arises whether the public have gone past the traditional image of nursing which projected nurses as unintelligent, passive and highly dependant hand-maidens (Kaler, Levy and Schall, 1989) In 1868, a Nightingale protà ©gà © called Lucy Osburn, made a significant beginning in Nursing reform. It was during this time that great advancement was made in medical science and technology such as discovery of anesthetics and disease pathophysiology. As a result of all this medical authorities demanded better improvements in nursing in order to facilitate improved patient outcomes and survival rates. (Keneley, 1988). Lucy Osburn, who was made Superintendent of the Sydney infirmary, made a significant achievement of how the public viewed nurses and their work, just by her remarkable positive influence. Lucy Osburn also introduced the wearing of uniforms and adherence to strict codes of hygiene. She also set the initial foundation for formal nurses training, incorporating formal lectures and teaching sessions into the daily hospital routine (Brodsky, 1968) The image of Nursing began to move towards a very positive direction (Forsyth, 1994) since formal training was introduced and it began to be looked upon as an admirable vocation and soon picked up momentum among all classes of women. It is one of histories greatest paradoxes of the 20th century, for even though it had poor and extremely harsh working conditions, it still remained to be the most sought after and popular female occupations. Life was tough for nurses during the 1950’s – 1960’s. Strong emphasis was laid on personal attitudes which contributed to being an â€Å"ideal nurse† like selflessness, obedience, kindness, devotion and dignity (Bridges, 1990). The trainees were required to live in hospital accommodation in order to instill morals, good manners and behavior which were

Preety Vs Non Preety Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Preety Vs Non Preety - Thesis Example It will be argued that those who appear better always do relatively better in their lives – keeping all other factors aside. It will further be contended that people who are physically more attractive tend to get more opportunities in their lifetime as compared to their colleagues with unattractive personalities. Moreover, the idea that people with more attractive physical appearances comparatively achieve more in their lives, will be put forward with the help of observation of each and every stage of a human life. ‘Physical appearance’, for the purpose of this paper must not be misinterpreted as ‘beauty’, as the idea of beauty as mere physical appearance is subjective. The physical appearance indicated throughout this paper will relate to only physical attractiveness which may find its roots in different characteristics of a person like his/her intelligence, approach, personality, richness, way of communication and/or prettiness etc. The paper propos es that even though a person’s physical attractiveness may not usually determine his/her working capacity, it is a recurring phenomenon that a person’s physical appearance affects other people’s perception of him thus giving rise to unequal distribution of opportunities amongst the working class based on their physical attractiveness (Loh). ... to show its effects† (Jackson) It is further proposed that the phrase ‘deciding his/her life’ refers to one’s eventual success in life through different stages that every human has to live e.g. childhood, teenage, young adulthood, adulthood and finally old-age. It does not mean that one’s personal life decisions are based upon his physical appearance, however, it refers to the idea that other’s decision with respect to him/her will definitely depend upon his/her physical appearance. The human society revolves around interdependence and notions of social contract (Hampton) which require social interaction and such social interaction is undoubtedly influenced largely by each individual’s physical appearances. Throughout the paper, the main focus will be upon the influence of physical appearance in the social interactions (reflections and perceptions) in different frameworks of various institutions that one happens to come across in his ent ire life-time. â€Å"Democratic or not, physical attractiveness has an important influence in almost every realm of behavior in which its effects have been studied† (Jackson). Through following three subdivided stages of one’s life, this paper will discuss above mentioned contentions in the light of physical attractiveness – (a) Childhood (Kindergarten), (b) Teenage and young adulthood (Middle & High School), (c) Adulthood & Old-age (Job market and Retired life). 2. Effect of Physical Appearance in one’s Childhood life: The birth of a child is known to have been the most beautiful gift of nature. But is this beauty enough to blossom that child as beautifully as others who were born at the same time as him? The most logical answer that follows is – no. There will always be an unequal distribution of resources

Abuse of Legal & Ilegal drugs Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Abuse of Legal & Ilegal drugs - Coursework Example It is a reflection of the importance attached to the prevention of drug abuse by the authorities (Columbia Univ., New York, NY. National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse. No Place To Hide: Substance Abuse in Mid-Size Cities and Rural America, 2001). This article contains the results of a drug abuse survey, which had been conducted by the Partnership for a Drug Free America. It deals with the effect that communication between parents and their children, has on the abuse of prescription drugs. It is an authoritative work on the effect of communication with one’s children, in drastically reducing addiction to drugs (Fathers need to talk more to kids about drugs 6/27/2005, Vol. 17 Issue 25, June, 2005). In order to take on the menace of teenage drug abuse, the Gallup High School in New Mexico, adopted a number of novel and innovative measures. Some of these are imparting knowledge of the problems resulting from abuse and the explicit and implicit effects of such abuse. A number of contributing factors like peer pressure, domestic environment and addiction were considered. The author, as the substance counselor of that school, has thoroughly studied the problem and has adopted an addict centered approach to the problem (Mulroy, 2007). Office of National Drug Control Policy, Washington, DC. (February, 2007). Teens and Prescription Drugs: An Analysis of Recent Trends on the Emerging Drug Threat. 1. Retrieved February 7, 2008, from ECSCO HOST Research Databases. (Document ID: ED495769). There is a proclivity, amongst teenagers, towards prescription drugs, in order to become euphoric. The use of prescription drugs is second to only that of the use of marijuana. Their use is enhanced by the common fallacy that they can be imbibed safely. OxyContin and Vicodin are the favorites of the teenage drug addict. Moreover, girls abuse prescription drugs more than boys. The

6 Main Characteristics Of Communication Essay Example for Free

6 Main Characteristics Of Communication Essay (1) Two or More Persons: The first important characteristic of communication is that there must be a minimum number of two persons because no single individual can have an exchange of ideas with himself. A listener is necessary to receive one’s ideas. Therefore, there must be at least two persons-the sender of information and the receiver. (2) Exchange of Ideas: Communication cannot be thought of in the absence of exchange of ideas. In order to complete the process of communication there must be an exchange of ideas, orders, feelings, etc. , among two or more than two persons. (3) Mutual Understanding: Mutual understanding means that the receiver should receive the information in the same spirit with which it is being given. In the process of communication, it is more important to understand the information rather than carry it out. See more: The stages of consumer buying decision process essay (4) Direct and Indirect Communication: It is not necessary in communication that the receiver and giver of information should be face-to-face with each other. Communication can be both direct and indirect. Direct communication means face-to-face conversation, while indirect communication is through other means. (5) Continuous Process: Communication is an endless process, as is the case with business where the manager continuously assigns work to his subordinates, tries to know the progress of the work and gives directions. (6) Use of Words as well as Symbols: There can be many means of communication, like the written, the oral and symbolic. The examples of symbolic communication are the ringing of bell for closing a school or a college, saying something by the movement of the neck,  showing anger or disapproval through eyes, giving some decision by the raising of a finger in cricket, etc.

Discrimination Throughout The Criminal Justice System Criminology Essay

Discrimination Throughout The Criminal Justice System Criminology Essay There is no doubt but that there were fundamental errors. The investigation was marred by a combination of professional incompetence, institutional racism and a failure of leadership by senior officers. (Macpherson, 1999: 317, para. 46:1) Critically assess this extract from the Macpherson report. Introduction Racist discrimination throughout the Criminal Justice System (CJS) in the United Kingdom (UK) is a controversial but pervasive issue. There is an undeniable over-representation of ethnic minorities; Africa/Caribbeans in particular are approximately four times as likely to be arrested as white people, even though they only represent around 2% of our total population. Ethnic areas tend to be subject to more proactive policing (Bowling and Phillips 2002 p.97) discrimination in cautioning and sentencing and use of The Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) stop and search powers. The Macpherson report of 1999 made following the murder of black teenager Stephen Lawrence focused on institutional racism through unwitting prejudice towards minorities which may cause them disadvantage and this may contribute to the racial discrimination towards black people and minorities throughout the (Lea 2000 p.230). This institutional racism has caused serious problems in the criminal justice system, in a variety of ways, which will be examined throughout the course of this essay. This essay will argue that undoubtedly institutional racism and failings on the part of leading officers did mar the whole investigation into Lawrences murder, but that wider historical, socio-economic and demographic factors bear as much responsibility. The Macpherson Report and Institutional Racism The Macpherson Report was made following the tragic death and racist murder of Stephen Lawrence. The black teenager from Eltham, South-East London named Stephen Lawrence was stabbed to death while waiting for a bus on the evening of 22 April 1993. After the initial investigation, five suspects were arrested but never convicted due to a series of police errors and investigational incompetence that has been widely reported in the press and the subject for a reassessment of the entire criminal justice system. It was suggested by Lawrences friends and parents during the course of investigation that the murder had a racist motive and that Lawrence was the subject of a racist homicide precisely because he was black. The media furore surrounding the murder investigation suggested that the handling of the case by the police and Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) was affected by issues of race leading to an inquiry. Macpherson (1999) concluded the investigation was marred by professional incompetence, institutional racism and failure of leadership by senior officers. The report documented the denial that the murder was even racially motivated, by five of the leading officers who were responsible for investigating the murder of Lawrence. This included a serious failure to examine the evidence with a clear eye and a racial stereotyping of the initial murder suspect Duwayne Brooks at the scene of the crime. In this sense, there serious failings in the Lawrence murder enquiry can be said to have been directly the result of the incompetence of the leading officers, but those failings are the result of a more endemic institutional racism. Institutional Racism Defined Institutional racism, which is also known as structural racism or systemic racism is any type of racist discrimination occurring specifically within institutions such as government bodies; public bodies; universities and businesses and large corporations. Sir William Macpherson of Cluny used the term to describe what he felt was: the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin, which can be seen or detected in processes, attitudes, and behaviour, which amount to discrimination through unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness, and racist stereotyping, which disadvantages minority ethnic people (Metropolitan police still institutionally racist, The Guardian, 22 April 2003) Institutional racism is one of three forms of racism: (i) Personally-mediated, (ii) internalized, and (iii) institutional. The term institutional racism actually originated with Stokely Carmichael (Johnson 1990). Institutional racism is the varied access to the goods, services, and opportunities of society as a result of deeply rooted endemic and often unconsciously adopted practices (Lea 2000). When this differential treatment becomes an essential aspect of institutions, it becomes common practice, making it difficult to rectify and the actions of new members to the institutions are reinforced by the behaviour of the old members. Another difficulty in reducing institutionalized racism is that there is no sole, true identifiable perpetrator. It is difficult to rectify as there is no one to blame but society and the other cultural and historical factors contributing to the institutional racism in the Metropolitan police will be examined below. Historical Background to Institutional Racism There is a strong historical relationship between crime, ethnicity and racism. Modern race ideas espoused by Hume, Kant and Gobineau (Apter 1999), saw the Age of Reason as being synonymous with white people. The concept of white supremacy (Bowling and Phillips 2002) was deeply embedded in British Imperialist ideals. The initial encouragement of the influx of ethnic minorities into the UK after World War II gave way to the hostile political climate of the 1960s and Enoch Powells rivers of blood (Chilton 2003 p.38). This lead to fractious relations between the police and black minorities throughout the 1970s, which culminated in a public image of black people as disorderly and riotous or inherently criminal. After the riots of the 1980s Lord Scarman (1986) issued a report emphasising the negative effects of oppressive policing. The media sensationalism of the early 1980s further embedded ideas of black and Asian criminality in the public consciousness. This myth inspires practices such as more proactive policing and this leads to the production of statistics which further perpetrate the myth. Generally studies have shown that ethnic minorities tend to have a lower academic achievement leading to higher levels of unemployment, but the question of whether this leads to an actual increase in offending remains somewhat illusive, the official statistics are all somewhat flawed as they tend to focus on the end result and not the process involved in the criminalization of minorities, but they are useful in that they show who is processed by the Criminal Justice System. Nature of Racist Offending The perpetrators of racially motivated crime are typically white males aged 16-25 yrs. Attacks most frequently occur with groups or gangs of offenders. Sibbitts study (1997) showed after having interviewed racist offenders and their wider community that the offenders racist views typically shared by their community and that this was a psychological factor legitimising their actions. In the past thirty five years there have been officially only 100 racially motivated killings within the UK, but these are only those which have been reported. Another factor in increased racist offending is the role of increasing size of ethnic populations and white Britains perception of them as receiving preferential treatment and access to scarce social and economic resources (Goldhagen 1996). Lack of witnesses and Victim reporting Although it has been suggested that around 85 % of crime against ethnic minorities is not racially motivated, even such an empirically unreliable statistic leaves a staggering 15% that are: patterns for victimization showed ethnic minorities were at greater risk of victimization relative to their white counterparts (British Crime Survey (BCS) 1988). Although institutional racism can account for some of the reasons why these crimes are rarely punished, victimisation of ethnic minorities within a broader community and their fear of more crime, threat and abuse stops them from coming forward to the police to report racially motivated crimes. The BCS (2000) showed that although household victimization rates for Black people and whites were more similar Asians were at greater risk. It is also impossible to ignore the wider socio-economic and demographic factors which are undeniably relevant when it comes to the perpetration and prosecution of racist crime. The concentration of ethnic minorities into high-crime areas and their younger age structure explain higher risk: unemployment, inner-city residence, lack of academic qualifications are all relevant factors, Further incidences of institutional racism in Macpherson Report Further suggestion of institutional racism discrimination can be found in the police use of stop and search powers, which was criticised in the Macpherson Report. Stop and search powers provide a context for the distrust of the police felt by ethnic minorities. Newburn, Shiner and Hayman in 2001 found that the police intrusion and the formal action taken were greater where the suspect was not white more stops, more searches and more intrusion. Lea (2000) in his article comments on this institutional racism and criticises the Macpherson Reports weak attempts to improve this, citing a lack of social interaction between officers and ethnic minorities as the cause of racist stereotyping. Lea reconstructs this citing power to cause trouble for the police and not race as the cause of discrimination. Stop and search makes a modest but significant contribution to the over-representation of blacks in the arrest population. The fact that only 8% of stop and searches in ethnic minorities lead to arrest further implies racial discrimination further down the CJS, although the 2000 BCS found that ethnic origin was only a predicator for car and not foot stops. African/Caribbean people make up about 2% of the total population of the UK but comprise 10% of male and 12% of female prisoners. These prison numbers are partly the result of a process of criminalization. This process begins with over-policing of ethnic areas. There tends to be an increased deployment of officers in minority areas and this may explain the four-fold arrest rate for black people in 1999/2000 compared to their numbers in the general population. The Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) can terminate cases before they reach the courtroom, diverting offenders from further action. The CPS has to consider whether there is a reasonable prospect of conviction. 20% of cases against black people were terminated compared to only 12% against whites and a huge 27% against Asians. This seems to evidence racial discrimination at earlier stages in the CJS, such as arrests, and lack of cautioning and a selective presumption of guilt by the police force. Perhaps this breaking in the chain o f criminalization of ethnic minorities can be explained by the less subjective nature of decisions made by the CPS and the stringent guidance provided in the code for Crown prosecutors. Women are also subject to discrimination in the CJS, in particular black women who represent 25% of the female prison population. However the number of Asian women in prison remains consistently low. Statistics showing that women are favourably treated at the sentencing stage, may be misleading because women tend to commit different types of offences to men, theft for example is the prominent offence committed by women. Conclusion The Lawrence report (Lea 2000) defined institutional racism as the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture, or ethnic origin. It can be seen or detected in processes, attitudes and behaviour which amount to discrimination through unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness and racist stereotyping which disadvantage minority ethnic people. The report went on to say that institutional racism persists because of the failure of the organisation openly and adequately to recognise and address its existence and causes by policy, example and leadership. Without recognition and action to eliminate such racism it can prevail as part of the ethos or culture of the organisation. The use of the phrase unwitting in the Stephen Lawrence Report allowed people to accept that there had been unintended disadvantage to ethnic minorities. It must be submitted in conclusion that the flaws into the inquiry of the Lawrence murder and the general lack of competence involving investigations where a murder of crime has an alleged racist element were a result of both institutional racism and a lack of competence by the five leading investigating offers. However, institutional racism is a difficult concept from which to attribute blame, it is ingrained in institutions gradually and may often be an entirely unconsciously followed pattern of differential treatment. The socio-political and historical factors within our society are equally to blame and must be addressed in order to prevent further reoccurrences. Word count: 1978

Ruby Bridges :: essays research papers

Thanks to her good grades, Ruby is chosen to be a pioneer in breaking down the walls of segregation. Through her entire first school year with white children, this brave little black girl is escorted by four federal marshals through a crowd of angry white protestors in front of the school. Miss Henry, Ruby’s teacher from Boston, works with Ruby since none of the regular teachers will have anything to do with her. Through the hard work of the people who told Ruby to attend the white school and through the determination of Ruby, Miss Henry, and Mr. and Mrs. Bridges, Ruby overcame discrimination, racism, prejudice, stereotyping, and educational equalities. The discrimination Ruby faced went entering the schools everyday was horrible. The protesters yelled mean and very hurtful things at her. Discrimination is motivated by prejudice. The protesters used the discrimination of blacks to try and deny Ruby the right to go to a white school. Racism was a huge factor in the protesters’ decisions to yell nasty things at Ruby. The white people thought they were superior to black people; therefore, not allowing to let Ruby into â€Å"their† school. The prejudice shown toward Ruby was uncalled for. The white people showed massive amounts of prejudice toward Ruby even though the people don’t know Ruby. They don’t understand the kind hearted, well behaved little girl Ruby is. When the protesters look at Ruby all they see is the color of her skin. Ruby was stereotyped by the people standing outside the school. The hurtful things they shouted at her were driven by stereotypical ideas. They based their opinions about Ruby without understanding with full knowledge and open minds what Ruby was all about. Instead, they made an inaccurate judgment based on the color of her skin. This movie is a perfect example of educational inequalities in the 1960s.

Meghans rough draft Essay -- Essays Papers

Meghan's rough draft For the past fifty years or so, Americans have had the great fortune of living safely in a relatively peaceful world. That perspective changed the moment a commercial airplane slammed into the World Trade Center on the morning of September 11th. Terrorists killed over 6,000 American citizens within a few hours. Suddenly, life as America knew it changed. Many stood in disbelief when they saw the joyous reactions of people cheering on the streets of Palestine. Our nation came to realize that we were truly hated, and that terrorist regimes rejoiced in our pain. The leader of one such a regime, Osama bin Laden, became America's clearly defined worst enemy. A war has begun between bin Laden and his terrorist followers, and all people who believe in freedom. Osama Bin Laden and the terrorists were unjustified in attacking America, and cannot rationally legitimize their actions. Evidence of this, as well as a better understanding of their reasoning, can be found through examination of Presi dent Bush's speech to the nation given on September 20th, and through examining additional information on Osama and his terrorist followers. It was the heavy influence of Islamic extremism at an early age, as well as his personal experiences fighting jihad, or holy war, that prompted Osama bin Laden to become a terrorist. During his speech, President Bush identified a terrorist regime named Al Qaeda as being responsible for the attacks, and said "a person named Osama bin Laden " (Bush, par. 16) was the leader of the group. Osama bin Laden was born in 1957 as one of fifty-some children sired by his father Mohammed Awad bin Laden. Due to his father's royal connections and construction business, his family had quite a bit of m... .... 2001. <http://www.msnbc.com/news/639057.asp> Zakaria, Fareed. "Islam and the West." Online posting. 12 Oct. 2001. Newsweek Live Talk. 15 Oct. 2001. <http://www.msnbc.com/m/nw/talk/talk.asp?lt=101201_islam> Miller, John. "Greetings, America. My Name Is Osama Bin Laden" Esquire. 1 Feb. 1999. Frontline. 2001. 15 Oct. 2001. <http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/who/miller.html> Doe, John. "A Biography of Osama bin Laden." Frontline. 15 Oct. 2001. <http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/who/bio.html> Doe, John. "Osama Bin Laden vs. the U.S.: Edicts and Statements." Frontline. 15 Oct. <2001. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/who/edicts.html> Bush, George. "President Bush's Speech to the Nation September 20, 2001." 20 Sept. <2001. http://www.u.arizona.edu/~wendres/docs/bush_sept20.html>

Economics

The most common belief is that Agency Theory is based in the economic model of man (e. G. Brenna , 1994). Jensen and Neckline arguing that the theory is grounded in what they call REAM – the Resourceful, Evaluative, Maximizing Model (Jensen , 1994). They argue that the REAM most closely replicates human action and that the economic model of man is a simplified version that does not reflect the spectrum of human behavior. Lets see a table that compares the two of them with logical order. Comparison of Economic Model of Man and REAMEconomic Model of Man Rational Bounded Rational Maximized Maximized based on thorough evaluation Motivated by incentives Actions driven by Incentives Self-Interested Opportunistic with guile Opportunistic if beneficial Focus o Focus on extrinsic rewards Will substitute goods if beneficial (not driven exclusively by extrinsic rewards) Not other regarding Altruistic if beneficial Resourceful Resourceful – innovative when facing constraints and op portunities With the understanding that man is self-interested, ever opportunistic and driven by incentives, agency theory addresses the effect of having this man as manager in the modern corporation by providing prescriptions to taming him. Industrial organization economics providing a basic theoretical perspective on the influence of market structure on firm strategy and performance. There is a range of specific models, major determinants of firm-level profitability include: (1) characteristic of the industry in which the firm competes (2) the firm's position relative to its competitors and (3) the quality or quantity of the firm's resources. (1 )landlers variables A long tradition is concerned with identifying properties of industries intriguing to above-average profitability.A large set of variables (growth, facilitation, capital and advertising intensity, etc. ) have performed differently in different studies, but the overall importance of these factors is beyond dispute (Rever berant, 1983). (2)Variables relating the firm to its competitors Originally perceived as the source Of market power market share and more specifically relative market share as viewed for this study serves as a proxy for some firm-specific relative competitive advantage resulting from learning effects and other firm specific assets. (3)Firm variables The typical economic model of firm performance explains from 15 to 40 percent of the variance in profit rates across firms.Apart from random effects, measurement errors, and so forth, one can suggest at least three explanations for the ‘remaining' variance. First, there may be important economic variables, the extent of which cannot be measured (e. G. Assets that are specific to an industry or a trading partner). Second, the ‘true' model may be such that intervening economic variables differ from case to case, making aggregate analysis difficult. Third, with very few exceptions organizational factors are not considered in thi s literature. ORGANIZATIONAL MODEL OF FIRM PERFORMANCE Perhaps even more than their economist counterparts, organizational researchers have developed a wide variety of models of performance.As an example managers can influence the behavior of their employees (and thus the performance of the organization) by taking into account factors such as the formal and informal structure, the planning, reward, control and information systems, their skills and personalities, and the relation of these to the environment. But on the other hand we have some questions about firm performance. Can a firm be over-differentiated in one area and under fractionated In another, but on the whole be just about right? In contrast, firm performance is an aggregate phenomenon. Numerous studies have demonstrated how changes in organizational structures, systems and practices have altered climate measures and hence individual performance .Both organizational structure (span of control, size, levels) and organizat ional processes (performance reviews, budgeting, collaboration) were more closely associated with climate measures than with performance (both subjective and objective) measures, and that organizational climate was directly linked to performance. Other more clinical efforts have shown linkages between managerial practices and attributes or dimensions of organization climate and firm performance . Figure 1 illustrates the assumed causality Of the traditional climate model Of firm performance. This thesis has uncovered a number of interesting points, many of which are perceived to lend themselves to exam aspects for further research.It would be interesting to obtain a more solid picture of our research and wows that research may provide an interesting basis for comparison with respect to the impact and consequences of Agency Theory and Firm performance within report governance mechanisms utilized today. Economics Policemen are seen all over the world as peacemakers, who base their actions on Just and sound principles In order to maintain law and order within the country. The police force Is an Integral part of society not only In that It manages to apprehend wrong doers but also act as a deterrent for the prevention of crimes which could, otherwise disrupt internal harmony within a society. As such the police have within them, certain ‘powers' to aid them in carrying out their duties, which put them above the law. However the question lies in the extent of such a power the state should stow upon such an organization.The determination of how much power to allocate to these police forces rests on the conditions of a country, society and people Involved, as well as whether these powers given would affect collects Individuals. Policemen shoulder responsibility, huge responsibilities in fact. They are tasked with upholding and protecting the moral values society has put in place. They should therefore have the right to unlimited power because it allows for them to be able to stand above crime in the country to be able to efficiently put out wrongdoers and their actions.This Is based on the assumption of course that policemen themselves are not corrupt and would not abuse such power given to them. If policemen's powers were subject to boundaries and conditions, meaning that they are denied of certain powers and rights that would allow them to swiftly bring Justice to perpetrators then their duties would be severely hindered and crime could end up being a problem in society. One such example would be could be seen in Singapore whereby police officers and Its governmental systems have been known to be one of the least corrupt in the world.In this, the SSP, or otherwise known as the Singapore Alice force hold significant power in society in that they are able to rise above individuals in society to be able to make clear Judgments and arrests to ensure law is being abided b y. It's power can be seen in it's ability to conduct arrests of longhairs, gang members etc without having to go through much obstacles such as bureaucracy due to them wielding sufficient powers of their own to decide on choices on the spot so that the problem does not persist. This amount of power awarded to the police force of Singapore allows it to perform Its duties with utmost efficiency.The result, one of the safest countries to live in the world, recording one of the lowest crime rates as compared to Brazil. Seen here, the importance of not holding back power given to the police force ensures a country remains stable to be able to advance economically and socially. However as seen, assumptions In the real world rarely hold. Policemen are humans. And humans are subject to greed that gives rise to corrupt behavior in an attempt to gain more. Therefore policemen should not be given unlimited power because it sometimes interferes with our individual's intrinsic moral values of fr eedom.The very fault in such a society lies in that ordinary citizens have no power against policemen and the law. In what many may argue that In a free world we live in today, we as Individuals have sovereignty and the free will to choose what we want, libertarians as we are governed by the many laws outside of us that do not make us autonomous. Such laws could trample upon our basic rights of freedom. And thus allowing the police, who are part of the law to hold significant, unlimited power would severely undermine our freedom as individuals.Take for example earlier in the year, George Thompson who lives in Boston was arrested by policemen not for murder, not for theft, not even for indecency, but for filming a police officer which he deemed to be out of control. Also in the US was a man in Baltimore who was arrested and threatened after police found out he was recording them. The conversation between them read: Man: I have my rights Police: You have no rights Man: I thought I had freedom of speech here Police: You Just lost it As seen the conversation(cut short) between them exemplifies what many would term absurd.Something as harmless as filming in a technologically advanced world we owe live in could cause us to get arrested. Although it could be said that there was a thin line to be drawn between respecting the police officer and the freedom of the man, it can be argued that the arrest of this man from Baltimore was based on no justified grounds. The unlimited powers the policeman had had cost the man his freedom because he, as an ordinary citizen had no choice but to bow down to the orders of the police officer. Hence unlimited powers given to policemen tend to be abused.Instead of trying to police the world, they should in fact be concerned with policing their own organizations instead. Hence their power should be limited. Conditions within society could also mean that unlimited power given to law enforcement agencies would present detriments to the co untry. Conditions such as social hierarchy that could still be present in third world or developing nations. These class systems, coupled with unlimited power given to police agencies would pose a huge problem to a country.This is so because policemen as said earlier are ordinary citizens as well, meaning that they are subject to discrimination and biasness towards a certain group. This could mean that rights of the minority could e stripped away because of social hierarchy. India is a good example to showcase this. Lately the country has been subject to cases of rape and murder of women. In this aspect policemen despite wielding significant power, the past 3-4 months have seen numerous cases of Indian women getting raped and afterbirth murdered. With the most recent case citing that 2 girls, aged 14 and 15 were raped and hanged from trees.The two girls who were cousins after being raped were hanged. This incident sparked outrage not only because of the brutality of such an inhumane action but cause police officers and officials refused to investigate into the matter. The reason being, these girls were of a lower caste and therefore it would not be worth their effort and time to dwell deeper into the matter. Further aggravating the matter was comments from the local police officials saying that such rape incidents should be considered as trivial due to the rampancy and frequency of such rape incidents.Condemnation of such a reaction soon broke out and eventually caused the government to step in as police agencies in that region were not up to the task. Such security of people in India born into lower castes would be affected with their interests not being cared for. This goes against the advocating of human rights and basic freedom for all. Even with the seemingly unlimited power policemen had in India, they were unable to make sound Judgments of the rape case causing many more of such cases to persist.One possible reason is, as stated, because of the presence of the class system that is still prevalent in India today. Because of this the only way the issue can be solved would be to grant police officers there lesser power ND to leave it to government intervention where a most Just decision and action can be made. Therefore the police should not have unlimited power in this case as it would lead to discrimination and social instability. Lastly, police should not be granted unlimited power because they are not, and should not be seen as ‘guardians or kings' of our own moral principles.They should not have the rights to have absolute grip and rule over our lives and decisions we make as it is morally unjustified. This argument on freedom dates back to debates amongst philosophers and two main schools of thoughts. Utilitarianism and Libertarianism. In short utilitarianism supporters such as Jeremy Beneath held the view that our individual rights should be forgone for the sake of the greater good of society whereas libertarians such as John Locke and Nonionic argued otherwise, that our individual rights should be upheld.In that it states that there should be the existence of a minimalist state with no paternalism and morals legislation which simply means no laws put in place to dictate how people should run their own lives. In the real world this is too extreme for such a notion to thrive in because humans quire constant guidance as we sometimes stray off the wrong paths. However if we were to go along the lines of a libertarian argument we can see the importance of individual rights and how the law agencies such as the police should not be ultimate rulers of our own moral principles and decisions.Giving police agencies unlimited power would be akin to giving them the rights to impose certain laws on us, some of which would not benefit. Although many who oppose this might say what would happen if there is little or no one to keep tabs on society, won't society go out of control with crime rates rising? This would therefore call for limited powers granted to the police, such that they still hold enough power to enforce the law, but not enough power to infringe upon our individual freedom.One way to see it would be how Emmanuel Kant a proponent of libertarianism argues about the importance of championing our intrinsic rights to freedom. He states first of all that We as human beings are rational and worthy of dignity and respect'. This bold statement shows that we are capable of sound thinking and hence deserve respect and dignity. Therefore to allow police to be masters over our lives through granting them unlimited power would be first of all, unnecessary and secondly, would mean that our individual rights are ignored.Thus policemen should not have unlimited power because it is not Justified. In conclusion as the quote goes, With great power, comes great responsibility. Certainly the powers bestowed upon police should come with great thought and repercussions that could arise as a result. I n this view, I believe that unlimited power should not be granted to police in dealing with social issues such as crime because it would result in the abusing of it that could in turn lead to our individual rights being stripped away. Economics Internal growth strategies refer to the growth within the organization by using internal resources. It focuses on developing new products, increasing efficiency, hiring the right people and better marketing. Should Voodoo want to expand into Africa to sustain profitability it can use its can consider its internal growth Voodoo can now then focus on what it already had this includes the quality it gives to their customers this including its latest development of LET which is fourth generation outwork 46.Expansion Raising the market share, sales revenue and profit of the present product or services. Market penetration Selling existing products to existing markets. To capture the market Voodoo needs to focus on its mission statement which is providing its customers with good coverage network which comes in Voodoo is still improving on its network coverage with an investment of R 120 000 000 and a year technological advancement and an additional R 2. Mil for its skills development. In tu rn Voodoo can retain its existing customers and at the same time attract more customers that require the best network coverage like LET that was developed by Voodoo before its competitors giving It much more competitive advantage. Market development Extending existing products to a new market. Voodoo alms at reaching new customer segments, wants to Increase sales by capturing new market area.Voodoo is currently the giant mobile providers In South Africa at the moment they are a growing mobile industry which Is owned by Britain Avoidance, they deciding to attract ore customers outside Brittany and South Africa, would need a market strategy from the marketing research, and the Initial Investment It needs to Invest this also including the politics of different countries In Africa. Product development Developing new products for existing markets or new markets, making some modifications In the existing product to give value to the customers for their purchase.Voodoo decision to Invest I n Its quality of Its network coverage has gave Its brand Image a boost In the market. Voodoo was the first mobile network In south Africa to cover G,G, and Its latest G network which Is LET from Its competitors proving that Its customers will get value for their money. It continues Investment In Its multimillion rand technological development keeps It ahead of Its competitors. Diversification The purpose of delectation's Is to allow the company to enter new lines of business that are different from current operations. There are four types of delectation's: vertical, horizontal, concentric and conglomerate.Voodoo before its competitors giving it much more competitive advantage. Market Extending existing products to a new market. Voodoo aims at reaching new customer segments, wants to increase sales by capturing new market area. Voodoo is currently the giant mobile providers in South Africa at the moment they are a growing mobile industry which is owned by Britain Avoidance, they deci ding to attract the marketing research, and the initial investment it needs to invest this also including the politics of different countries in Africa. Product development modifications in the existing product to give value to the customers for their purchase.Voodoo decision to invest in its quality of its network coverage has gave its brand image a boost in the market. Voodoo was the first mobile network in south Africa to cover G,G, and its latest G network which is LET from its competitors proving that its customers will get value for their money. It continues investment in its multimillion rand technological development keeps it ahead of its competitors. The purpose of diversification is to allow the company to enter new lines of business that are different from current operations. There are four types of diversification:

Hamlet cigar Essay

The well known brand for cigars Hamlet is produced by Japanese Company. It was initially launched in the year 1964 in United Kingdoms. Their tagline spread a little happiness is well described in their art work. Art Work for Hamlet Cigar Art work for Hamlet Miniature Cigar’s urinal advertisement is very interesting. It has the background of a men’s washroom. A tall man’s back is placed on the extreme left who is urinating, while in the 80% of the remaining art work three vertically challenged people are standing. Being short heighten they can’t reach up to pee in the urinal. One standing in the right has his knees bent and the one standing in left has his knees crossed. They both have flinching expressions on their faces and they holding their stomach. Where as the third vertically challenged person standing in the middle looks content and is smoking and offering Hamlet Cigar from the packet to the person standing left to him. Though his legs are a little bent too which mean he also wants to take a leak but his expression are very cool and calm. The moral of the advertisement is Hamlet Miniatures Cigar can satisfy you even in the dire of situations. Top right of the green tiled bathroom wall has cigar’s cover pasted. Their tagline ‘Spread a little happiness’ is placed right next to hamlet miniature cigar cover. The fonts are big and in white making it prominent on green background due to the color contrast. This advertisement received 19 complaints. It was considered offensive and vulgar. It was more of a mockery to short people. The company in its defense claimed that it was portray of problems these people face in their daily lives (BBC, 2002). Never the less, the art work conveys the message very clearly to its target audiences.

Innocence and Hostility in Romeo and Juliet and Of Mice and Men Essay

One dictionary defines Innocence as ‘Freedom from sin, moral wrong, or guilt through lack of knowledge of evil. ’ Thus innocence is the state wherein one is, in a sense, pure; free from doubt and dread and woe, unmarred by sorrow or the countless ills running rampant in the world. Innocence is associated with children and animals and nature. But for growth to occur, Innocence must be slain in order for Experience to flourish. This bittersweet transition from child to adult is the natural course of life: one cannot stay innocent forever. Oftentimes, this transition from innocent child to experienced adult occurs in the face of hostility, as in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, where the young lovers, to combat the hatred their families have for one another, sacrifice their love, their innocence, and their lives. This theme exists as well in Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men, where George kills Lennie to save him from suffering, and in the doing so, also slays their shared dream of owning land and being free men. In Romeo and Juliet, the hostility between the Capulets and the Montagues creates the conflict that drives the play. This generation-spanning hatred consumes everything it touches: it causes the deaths of Mercutio at the hands of Tybalt, and drives Romeo to avenge his friend’s death by slaying Tybalt in turn. The hostility borne of this act forces Romeo to flee and Juliet to feign death; Romeo, consumed by grief, kills himself, and Juliet upon waking to find her husband dead, does the same. We see that the hostility permeates every aspect of the play. Innocence, symbolized by the young lovers, is ultimately slain by the hostility shared between the two families. In Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men, George and Lennie, two farm hands, share a dream to own a piece of land, and in doing so, become free men. George appoints himself caretaker of Lennie, a large, abnormally strong man with the mind of a young child. The hostility that proves the downfall of these two men stems from Curley, the son of the ranch owner. A man possessed of a short temper and a violent streak, his cruelty forces his wife to seek the company of other men. She spends time with Lennie. Warned that her presence causes trouble, he attempts to silence her when she creates a scene, and inadvertently kills her, his actions driven by fear concerning the hostility of Curley. Alarmed by his actions, he flees. The slaying of Innocence occurs when George kills Lennie in order to save him from cruel treatment and death at the hands of Curley and the other men. But in slaying Lennie, George also kills their dream of owning land, and being free men, and his own innocence as well. In both these stories hostility drives the conflict, propelling actions onward to the end, where innocence is slain and experience gleaned. In Romeo and Juliet the death of the two lovers causes the families to ‘grow up,’ and abolish the hatred and hostility between the two houses. In killing themselves the title characters also kill the hostility that led them to their deaths, and though innocence dies, peace is achieved. In Of Mice and Men, the hostility of Curley does not die; what dies is the innocence of a dream and the the innocence of childhood, symbolized by Lennie. George gains experience, he ‘grows up,’ and in doing so realizes the futility of the dream of being free in the face of the hostility of the landowners, as represented by Curley. And so Innocence is slain, and gives way to experience. Hostility remains in the world to aid in that transition. One cannot be Innocent always, and death and tragedy produce lessons one must learn in order to live in the world. Lovers die, as do hopes and dreams, but no matter how tragic or heartbreaking the events may be, one always gains lessons, often severe, from these losses. Such is life, as reflected in these works. Works Cited Shakespeare, William. Romeo and Juliet. Washington DC: Washington Square Press, 2004 Steinbeck, John. Of Mice and Men. New York: Penguin, 1978

Social Differentiation

Gender of human remains can show social differentiation in a variety of different ways. One such factor is damage on the bones may indicate the job of the deceased, for example, signs of osteoarthritis in the Canadian Inuits jaws and right hands indicate that they were sewing skins. In comparison, disease to the right shoulder and elbow in some cases show that the deceased used harpoons which have been interpreted as men who hunted.Social differences have been seen between male and female skeletons at Tell Abu Hureyra; grooves in the sides of women's teeth are thought to have been caused by drawing fibres through them before using the fibres in baskets and male skeletons had lesions and strain injuries to their arms which might be associated with spears. However, these lesions may have been created by post depositional factors. Another evaluative point is that these remains do not prove that all males hunted and all females sewed – it only proves that women had bad teeth.The l ayout of graves also show social differentiation as evidence at Skara Brae shows us; bodies of two females, interred in stone-built graves, were discovered beneath the right hand bed and wall. It was apparent that the females had been buried there before the house was constructed and their presence could have signified some sort of foundation ritual. However, this may also signify that this area was their domain in life. Social differentiation can also be identified through the age of the deceased.At West Kennet, DNA analysis on the bones has shown that 46 individuals were disarticulated into various transepts in the tomb. The bones were sorted into not only by gender, but also age; infant, young adult and elderly, suggesting that each age group had a specific role within the society. To a certain extent grave goods can tell us a lot about social differentiation based on gender. Rich male graves are often interpreted in terms of what he earned whereas when a woman is found which ric h grave goods they are often attributed to her father or husband.Women having their own status is not considered a lot within archaeology. In inhumations, if women over a certain age have certain grave goods, and the younger ones do not it can be argued that those goods represent the dowry exchanged in marriage. A reoccurring theme from the Bronze Age onwards is that women were regularly buried with pins, necklaces and bracelets however, the interpretation that this was a dowry is not always correct as DNA analysis [ARCH 2] at West Hazelton showed some females were buried with weapons and some males were buried with jewellery and so the grave goods may indicate achieved status.Until recently, the sexing of burials relied on grave goods. Jewellery without weapons was expected in female graves and so was used to define these graves. However, the problem with this method is that they might not be compatible with modern society’s biased view on male and female belongings such as the Birdlip Burial. Along with the deceased, this contained a mirror and jewellery and it was thought to be a rich princess’s grave or that of Boudicca herself, however, recent examination and CAT scans of the skull shows that it has masculine traits which contrasts with the original interpretation.The assemblage is also notable in that the artefacts had all been broken and a vessel had been placed over the face of the dead and so it is thought that it may have been a male shaman and not a princess. Grave goods can show achieved or ascribed status which is also shown with the age of the body. Vedbaek Bodbakken shows a child buried on a swans wing and other natural objects such as amber along with its mother. The age of the infant and the mother who was only believed to be about 18 has helped to interpret the grave as one of a wife or daughter of a chief.The grave is thought to be such high status because of the effort and time placed into the burial and ascribed status becaus e the child had not had time to earn it themselves. One problem with using the age is there is a lack of younger burials, high infant mortality rates and so are disregarded. For example the presence of 97 baby inhumations at a brothel at a Roman Villa in Thames Valley shows that the Romans did not consider children to be human until they reached a certain age.The layout of a settlement can help to show social differentiation through gender and age because of the views of modern archaeologists. For example at Skara Brae each of the eight dwellings found have the same basic layout – a large room, with a fireplace in the middle, a bed on either side and a dresser facing the entrance. However, the right hand bed is always larger that than the left hand bed which has led some archaeologists, including one of the site's main excavators, Gordon Childe, to speculate that the layout of the village is gendered – right being male and left being female.Beads and paintpots were als o found on some of the smaller beds – lending to the gendered theory. Also, House 7 in Skara Brae appears very much like the other houses in the community, however, several distinctive features have led archaeologists and historians to interpret that it played a unique part in village life. The house is isolated from the main part of the village and access is gained down a side-passage, it is also the only house in the village in which the door was barred from the outside, not the inside.The bodies of two females, interred in stone-built graves, were discovered beneath the right hand bed and wall. It was apparent that the females had been buried there before the house was constructed and their presence could have signified some sort of foundation ritual. Most theories on the subject involve confinement or separation from the rest of the community – they range from childbirth and menstruation to initiation through ritual and imprisonment.

Present Status and Future Refinements Essay

Present Status and Fut ure Refinement s Jacqueline Fawcett, Ph. D. , F. A. A. N. Abstract The central concepts and themes of t he discipline of nursing are identified and formalized as nursing’s metaparadigm. Examples illustrate the direction provided by the metaparadigm for theory development. Refinements of the metaparadigm through conceptual models and programs of nursing research are proposed. T he discipline of nursing will advance only through continuous and systematic development and testing of nursing knowledge. Several recent reviews of the status of nursing theory development indicate that nursing has n o established tradition of scholarship. Reviewers have pointed out that most work appears unfocused and uncoordinated, as each scholar moves quickly from one topic to another and as few scholars combine their efforts in circumscribed areas (Chinn, 1983; Feldman, 1980; Hardy, 1983; Roy, 1983; Walker, 1983). Broad areas for theory development’ are, however, beginning to be recognized. Analysis of past and present writings of nurse scholars indicates that theoretic and empirical work has always centered on just a few global oncepts and has always dealt with certain general themes. This paper identifies these central concepts and themes and formalizes them as nursing’s metaparadigm. Examples are given to illustrate the direction provided by the metaparadigm for theory development. The paper continues with a discussion o f refinements of t he metaparadigm needed at the levels of ja cqueline Fawcett, Ph. D. , F. A. A. N. , i s Associate Professor, and Section Chairperson, Science and Role Development, School of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Page 84 disciplinary matrices and exemplars nd concludes with proposals for future work needed to advance to the discipline of nursing. Present Status of the Metaparadigm of Nursing The metaparadigrn of any discipline i s a statement or group of statements identifying its relevant phenomena. These statements spell out the phenomena of interest in a most global manner. No attempt i s made to be specific or concrete at the metaparadigm level. Eckberg & Hill (1979) explained that the metaparadigm â€Å"acts as an encapsulating unit, or framework, within which the more restricted . . . structures develop† (p. 927). The Central Concepts of Nursing Evidence supporting the existence of a metaparadigm of nursing i s accumulating. A review of the literature on theory development in nursing reveals a consensus about the central concepts of the discipline-person, environment, health, and nursing (Fawcett, 1983; Flaskerud & Halloran, 1980). This consensus i s documented by the following statements: O ne may. . . demarcate nursing in terms of four subsets: 1 ) persons providing care, 2) persons with health problems receiving care, 3) the environment in which care i s given, and 4 ) an end-state, well-being. (Walker, 1971, p. 429) The major concepts identified (from an nalysis of the components, themes, topics, and threads of the conceptual frameworks of 50 baccalaureate nursing programs) were Man, Society, Health, and Nursing. (Yura &Torres, 1975, p. 22) The units person, environment, health, and nursing specify the phenomena of interest to nursing science. (Fawcett, 1978, p. 25) Nursing studies the wholeness or health of humans, reco gnizing that humans are in continuous interaction with their environments. (Donaldson & Crowley, 1978, p. 119) Image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship Nursing’s focus i s persons, their environments, their health and nursing itself. Bush, 1979, p. 20) Nursing elements are nursing acts, the p atient, and health. (Stevens, 1979, p. l l ) The foci of nursing are the individual in relation to health, the environment, and the change process, whether it be maturation, adaptation, or coping. (Barnard, 1980, p. 208) Nursing i s defined as the diagnosis and treatment of human responses to actual or potential health problems. (American Nurses‘ Association, 1980, p. 9 ) The four conceptual areas of nursing are: the person receiving nursing; the environment within which the person exists; the health-illness continuum within which the erson falls at the time of the interaction with the nurse; and finally, nursing actions themselves. (Flaskerud, cited in Brink, 1980, p. 665) The do main of nursing has always included the nurse, the patient, the situation in which they find themselves, and the purpose of their being together, or the health of the patient. In more formalized terms, . . . the major components of the nursing [metalparadigm are nursing (as an action), client (human being), environment (of the client and of the nurse-client), and health. (Newman, 1983, p. 388) There i s general agreement that the central oncepts of the discipline of nursing are the nature of nursing, the individual who received nursing care, society-environment, and health. (Chinn, 1983, p. 396) These statements indicate that there i s considerable agreement among scholars as t o the concepts central to the discipline of nursing. In fact, a review of the literature revealed no contradictory statements. RecurringThemes The relationships between and among the concepts-person, environment, health, nursing-are elaborated in recurring themes found in works of nurse scholars since Nightin gale (1859). These themes are listed in Table 1. Summer, 1984, Volumo XVI, blo. 3 Metaparadigm of Nursing TABLE 1 THEMES OF THE YETAPARAWW OF NURSING 1. The principles and laws that govern the life-process, well-being. and optimum function of human beings, sick or well. 2. The patterning of human behavior in interaction with the environment in normal life events and critical life situations. 3. The process by which positive changes in health status are elfected. (Donaldson& Crowley, 1978, p. 113; Gortner, 1980, p. 180) The four central concepts and three recurring themes identify the phenomena central to the discipline of nursing in an abstract, global manner. They represent the metaparadigm. As such, they have provided some direction for nursing theory development. As Newman (1983) explained: It i s within the context of these four major components and their interrelationships that theory development in nursing has proceeded. Theoretical differences relate to the emphasis placed on one or more of the components and to the way in which their relationships are viewed. (p. 388) The relationship between the concepts â€Å"person† and â€Å"health† i s considered in the first theme. Theories addressing this theme describe, explain, or predict individuals‘ behavior during eriods of wellness and illness. Newman’s (1979) theory of health i s one example. This theory includes the concepts of movement, time, space, and consciousness. Newman proposes that â€Å"the expansion of consciousness i s what life, and therefore health, i s a ll about† (p. 66). Another example i s Orem’s (1980) theory of self-care, wh ich maintains that â€Å"self-care and care of dependent family members are learned behaviors that purposely regulate human structural integrity, functioning, and human development† (p. 28). S till another example i s Orern’s theory of self-care deficits. This theory maintains that individuals â€Å"are subject t o healthrelated or health-derived limitations that render them incapable of continuous selftare or dependent care or that result in ineffective or incomplete care† (p. 2 7). The relationships among the concepts †person,â€Å" †environment,† and â€Å"health† are considered in the second theme. Theories addressing this theme Summer, 1B84, Volume XVI, No. 3 describe, explain, or predict individuals’ behavioral patterns as they are influenced by environmental factors during periods of wellness and illness. Such theories place the individuals ithin the context of their surrounding environment rather than considering them in isolation, as in the first theme. Roy and Roberts’ (1981) theory of the person as an adaptive system i s an example. This theory proposes that the person i s a system that adapts to a constantly changing environment. Adaptation i s accomplished through the action of coping mechanisms called the â€Å"regulator† and the â€Å"cognator. † The relationships among the â€Å"person,’’ â€Å"health,† and â€Å"nursing† are considered in the third theme. Environment may also be taken into account here. This heme i s addressed by theories about nursing practice. These theories describe or explain nursing processes or predict the effects of nursing actions. King‘s (1981) theory of goal attainment i s one example. King explains: that a paradigm, or disciplinary matrix, i s more restrictive than a metaparadigm, and that i t â€Å"represents the shared commitments of any disciplinary community, including symbolic generalizations, beliefs, values, and a host of other elements† (p. 926). The authors went on to say, A disciplinary matrix may be seen as the special subculture of a community. It does ot refer to the beliefs of an entire discipline (e. g. biology), but more correctly t o those beliefs of a specialized community (e. g. phage workers in biology). (p. 926) Identification of the metaparadigm i s an important step i n the evolution of a scholarly tradition for nursing. The n e x t step i s r efinement o f t h e metaparadigm concepts and themes, which occurs at the level of the paradigm or disciplinary matrix, rather than at that of the metaparadigm. The Disciplinary Matrix Eckberg and Hill (1979) explained Most disciplines have more than one disciplinary matrix. Each one represents a distinctive frame of reference within which the metaparadigm phenomena are viewed. Furthermore, each disciplinary matrix reflects a particular research tradition by identifying the phenomena that are within its domain of inquiry, the methods that are to be used to investigate these phenomena, how theories about these phenomena are to be tested, and how d ata are to be collected (Laudan, 1981, p. 151). More specifically, the research tradition of each disciplinary matrix includes six rules that encompass all phases of an investigation. The first rule identifies the precise nature f the problem to be studied, the purposes to be fulfilled by the investigation, or both. The second rule identifies the phenomena that are to be studied. The third rule identifies the research techniques that are to be employed and the research tools that are to be used. The fourth rule identifies the settings in which data are to be gathered and the subjects who are to provide the data. The fifth rule identifies the methods to be employed in reducing and analyzing the data. The sixth rule identifies the nature of contributions that the research will make to the advancement of knowledge. (Schlotfeldt, 1975, p. ) In nursing, disciplinary matrices are most clearly exemplified by such conceptual models as Johnson‘s (1980) Behavioral System Model, King’s (1981) Open Systems Model, Levine’s (1973) Conservation Model, Neuman’s (1982) Systems Model, Orem’s (1980) Self-care Model, Rogers’ (1980) Life Process Model, and Roy’s (1984) Adaptation Model. Each Image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship Page 85 . . . nurse and client interactions are characterized by verbal and nonverbal communication, in which information i s exchanged and interpreted; by transactions, in which values, needs, and wants of each ember of the dyad are shared; by perceptions of nurse and client and the situation; by self in role of client and self in ro le of nurse; and by stressors influencing each person and the situation in time and space. – (p. 144) Orem’s ( 1 980) theory of nursing systems is another example. This theory maintains that †nursing systems are formed when nurses use their abilities to prescribe, design, and provide nursing for legitimate patients (as individuals or groups) by performing discrete actions and systems of actions† (p. 29). Refinement of the Metaparadigm Metaparadigm of Nursing f these nursing models puts forth a distinctive frame of reference within which the metaparadigm phenomena are viewed. Each provides needed refinement of the metaparadigm by serving as a focus-†ruling some things in as relevent, and ruling others out due to their lesser importance† (Williams, 1979, p. 96). Conceptual models of nursing are beginning to make major contributions to the development of nursing theory. Theories derived directly from King’s model and from Orem’s model were identified earlier. A considerable amount of empirical work designed to test unique nursing theories as well as heories borrowed from other disciplines i s n ow being guided by nursing models. Some of the studies are listed in Table 2. TABLE 2 Examples of Research Derived From Conceptual Models of Nursing Oorothy Johnson’s BehavioralSystem Model -An instrument for theory and research development using the behavioral systems model for nursing: The cancer patient. Part I (Derdiarian, 1983). -An instrument for theory and research development using the behavioral systems model for nursing: The cancer patient. Part II (Derdiarian & Forsythe, 1983). -Achievement behavior in chronically ill children (Holaday, 1 974) Maternal response to their chronically ill infants’ attachment behavior of crying (Holaday, 1981) -Maternal conceptual set development: Identifyingpatterns of maternal response to chronically ill infant crying (Holaday, 1 982) -Development of a research tool : Patient indicators of nursing care (Majesky, Brester, & Nishio, 1 978) Myra Levine’s Conservation Model -Effects of lifting techniques on energy expenditure: A preliminary investigation (Geden, 1 982) – A comparision of two bearing-downtechniques during the second stage of labor (Yeates & Roberts, 1984) Betty Neuman’s Systems Model Effects of information on postsurgical coping (Ziemer. 1 983) Dorothea Orem’s Self-care Model -Application of Orem’s theoretical constructs to selfcare medication behaviors in the elderly (Harper, 1984) -Development of an instrument to measure exercise of self-care agency (Kearney & Fleischer, 1 979) Martha Roger’s Life Process Model -The relationship between identification and patterns of change in spouses’ body images during and after pregnancy (Fawcett, 1977) -Patients’ perceptions of time: Current research (Fitzpatrick, 1 980) -Reciprocy and helicy used t o relate mEGF and wound healing (Gill & Atwood, 1 981) Therapeutic touch as energy exchange: Testing the theory (Ouinn, 1 984) Callista Roy’s Adaptation Model -Needs of cesarean birth parents (Fawcett, 1981) -An exploratory study of antenatal preparation for ce- Page 86 sarean birth (Fawcett & Burritt, in press) -Clinical tool development for adult chemotherapy patients: Process and content (Lewis, Firsich. & Parsell, 1 979) -Content analysis of interviews using a nursing model: A look at parents adapting to the impact of childhood cancer (Smith, Garvis, & Martinson, 1 983) Despite the contributions already made by nursing models to theory development, much more work i s needed. In particular, rules addressing methodology and instrumentation must be specified. Moreover, programs of research emanating from each model must be conducted to refute or validate nursing theories. Programmatic research probably i s carried out most expediently by communities of scientists. Hardy (1983) explained that each community of scientists i s . . . a g roup of persons w h o are aware of their uniqueness and the separate identity of their group. The have a special coherence which separates them from neighboring groups, and this special bond means they have a shared set of values and a common commitment which operates as hey work together t o achieve a common goal. Coordination of their activities may include interaction among the coordination of institutions, organizations, groups, and individuals. Such coordinated groups hold a common perspective, common values and common bonds, a nd they have common sets of activities and functions which they carry out to achieve a common ou tcome. (p. 430) Each community of scientists, then, represents a distinctive subculture, or disciplinary matrix, of the parent discipline. It can be argued that communities of scientists may be formed outside the organizing framework of nursing models. However, it also can be argued that conceptual models of nursing, like the disciplinary matrices of other disciplines, are the most logical nuclei for communities of scientists. This argument i s supported by three facts. First, the curricula of most schools of nursing now are based on conceptual models. Second, most graduate programs and many undergraduate programs offer courses dealing with the content and uses of nursing models. And third, clinical agencies are beginning to organize the delivery of nursing care according to the tenets of conceptual ‘models. image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship Collectively, these facts mean that cademicians, students, clinicians, and administrators are thinking about nursing theory, nursing research, and nursing practice within the context of explicit conceptual models. It i s probable, then, that eventually the development of a ll nursing theory will be directed by nursing models. It may even by possible to categorize seemingly isolate d past and current work according to conceptual models. This should provide more organization for extant nursing knowledge and should identify gaps and needed areas of inquiry more readily than is possible now. Moreover, such an endeavor should identify members of different ommunities of scientists to each other as w ell as t o the larger scientific community. Exemplars S till further refinement of the metaparadigm i s needed a t the most restrictive level-that of the exemplar. Eckberg and Hill (1979) identified the function of an exemplar as permitting â€Å"a way of seeing one’s subject matter on a concrete level, thereby allowing puzzle solving to take place† (p. 927). They went on to explain: For a discipline to b e a science it must engage i n puzzle-solving activity; but puzzle solving can only be carried out if a community shares concrete puzzle solutions, or exemplars. It i s t he exemplar that i s i mportant, not merely the disciplinary matrix, and certainly not merely the general presuppositions of t he community [i. e. , the metaparadigm]. The latter may be important, but they do n ot direct ongoing, dayto-day research. (p. 927) There i s some evidence of exemplars in nursing. This includes but is not limited to Fitzpatrick’s (1980) programmatic research on time perception; studies o effects of information f about a threatening procedure on a patient’s responses to the procedure (e. g. , Hartfied, Cason, & Cason, 1982; Johnson, Fuller, Endress, & Rice, 1978; Ziemer, 19831, and investigations of actors contributing to the outcomes of social support (Barnard, Brandt, Raff, & Carroll, 1984 in press). These researchers are beginning to solve some of the major puzzles of nursing. However, more work i s needed to identify other puzzles and to develop methods for their solutions. Summer, 1984, Volume XVI, No. 3 Metaparadigm of Nursing Con clusion It is time to formally accept the central concepts and themes of nursing as the metaparadigm of the discipline. It i s also time to direct efforts toward furf ther refinement o this metaparadigm by developing specific rules for the empirical work needed to generate nd test nursing theories within the context of conceptual ‘models. The metaparadigm must be refined still further through the developing of new puzzle-solving activities that will provide answers to the most pressing problems encountered by nurse clinicians, educators, and ddministrators. Any one of these activities would in itself make a significant contribution to the discipline; a ll three could quite possibly be the major accomplishments of the decade. ‘As used here, theory development reft. r to generation a nd testing of theory. and encornpasiei †ivory tower† theorizing as well as empirical rewarch. References American Nurses’ As5ocialion. Nursing: A social policy statement. Kansas City, Missouri: ANA, 1980. Barnard, K. E. Knowledge for practice: Direction5 for the future. Nursing Research, 1980. 29, 208-21 2. Barnard, K . E. , Brandt, P. , Raff. 8.. & Carroll, P. (Ed,. ). Social support and families of vulnerable infants. New York: March of Dimes, 1984. Brink, P. 1. Editorial. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 1980, 2, 665-666. Buih, H . A. Models for nursing. Advances i n Nursing Science, 1979, l ( 2 ) . 13-21. Chinn, P. L. Nursing theory development: Where we have been and where we are going. In N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time to speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Donaldson, S. K. , & Crowley, D. M . The discipline of nursing. Nursing Outlook, 1978, 26, 113-120. Eckberg, D. L .. & Hill, L. , Jr. The paradigm concept and sociology: A critical review. American Sociological Review, 1979, 44,925-937. Fawcett, 1. The â€Å"what† of theory development. In Theory developmenk What, why, how? (pp. 17-33). New York: National League for Nursing, 1978. Fawcett, 1. (1983). Hallmarks of success in nursing theory development. In P. L. Chinn, (Ed. ), Advances i n nursing theory development (pp. -17). Rockville, Maryland: Aspen. Feldrnan, H. R. Nursing research in the 1980s: Issues and implications. Advances in N ursing Science, 1980, 3(1);85-92. Fitzpatrick, 1. J . Patients perceptions of time: Current research. International Nursing Review, 1980, 27, 148-153, 160. Flaskerud. 1. H. , & Halloran, E. J. Areas of agreement in nursing theory development. Advances in Nursing Science, 1980, 3(1), 1-7. Hardy. M. Metaparadigrnsand theory development. In N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A t ime t o speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Hartfield. M. k Cason, C. L. , & Cason, C. J . Effects of , information about a threatening procedure on patients‘ expectations and emotional distress. Nursing Research, 1 982,31,202-206. lohnson, D. E . The behavioral system model for nursing. In J . P. Riehl & C. Roy, (Eds. ), Conceptual models for nursing practice (2nd ed. ). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1980. Johnson. 1 . E. , Fuller, S . 5.. Endress, M. P . , & Rice, V S. . Altering patients’ responses to surgery: An extension and replication. Research in Nursing and Health, 1978, 1 , 111-121. King. I. M. A theory for nursing: Systems, concepts, process. New York: Wiley, 1981. Neurnan, B . The Neuman systems model: Application t o nursing education and practice. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1982. Newrnan, M. A. Theory development in nursing. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 1979. Newrnan, M . A. The continuing revolution: A history of nursing science. I n N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time t o speak. New York: McGrawHill, 1983. Nightingale, F. Notes on nursing: What it is, a nd what it i s not. London: Harrison, 1859. (Reprinted by L i p pincott, 1946) Orem, D. E. Nursing: Concepts of practice (2nd ed. ). New York: McCraw-Hill, 1980. Rogers, M. E . A n introduction to t he theoretical basisk f nursing. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 1970. Roy, C. I ntroduction to nursing: An adaptation model. (2nd Ed. ). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1984. Roy, C. Theory development in nursing: Proposal for direction. In N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time t o speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Roy, C. , & Roberts, S . L . Theory construction i n nursing: An adaptation model. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1981. Schlotfeldt, R. M. The needs for a conceptual framework, In P . J. Verhonick (Ed. ), Nursing research I. Boston: Little, Brown. 1975. Stevens, 8. J. N ursing theory. Analysis, application, evaluation. Boston: Little, Brown, 1979. Walker, L. 0. Toward a clearer understanding of the concept of nursing theory. Nursing Research, 1971, 20, 428-435. Walker, L. 0. Theory and research in the development of nursing as a discipline: Retrospect and prospect. In N . L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time to speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Williams, C. A. The nature and development of conceptual frameworks. In F. S . Downs & I . W . Fleming, (Eds. ) Issues in nursing research. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1979. Ziemer, M. M. Providing patients with information rior t o surgery and the reported frequency of coping behaviors and development of symptoms foll owing surgery. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1982. A Response to D r. J . Fawcett’s Paper: â€Å"The Metaparadigm of Nursing: Present Status and Fut ure Refinement s† June N. Brodie, R. N. , Ph. D. D r. Fawcett’s formulation of a metap aradigm for nursing represents a commendable effort to consolidate competing nursing theories and encompasses enormous potential for the advancement of nursing knowledge, research, and practice meriting serious consideration by nursing une N . Brodie, R. N. , Ph. D . i s Associate Professor of Nursing Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Summer, 1984, Volume XVI, No. 3 scholars. This response focuses on how she accomplished this task (what she did and how she did it as well as what she didn’t do and what needs to be done). Essentially Dr. Fawcett’s metaparadigm can be viewed as an evolution of a nursing metaparadigm and an organization of the growth of nursing knowledge rather than as a completed and finalized product. To be more explicit, the basis of the paper exhibits the spirit of Darwinian Evolution and ould be treated as a manifestation of Image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship a transitional phase i n the competition for the survival of the fitte st (theory). The metaparadigm represents a serious and scholarly attempt to negotiate entry into a different level of the theoretical arena of nursing knowledge. This task was accomplished by examining the concepts derived from the phenomena of the discipline and converging these concepts into a context pertinent to the domain of nursing by providing a structure (a metaparadigm) that has the potential of consolidating disparate nursing theories into Page 87